College of Education and Human Development Theses and Dissertations
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Browsing College of Education and Human Development Theses and Dissertations by Department "Counseling & Educational Psychology"
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Item Achievement motivation and resilience among student athletes(2015-12) Arora, SaumyaCollege athletes may contend with greater pressure than those of other students. Being involved with collegiate sports requires them to balance both academics and sports. When managing various responsibilities, it is not uncommon for athletes to report physical, psychological, and financial pressures (Gilgunn, 2011). Other challenges reported included issues related to adjustment, emotional imbalance, and psychological or physical symptoms related to stress (Watson & Kissinger, 2007). It was believed that studying variables such as achievement motivation and resilience may provide insight into how athletes manage these varied responsibilities. These variables were studied among other populations including elementary and middle school students. However, there is not a sufficient amount of literature exploring achievement motivation and resilience among college student athletes. A sample of 216 college students from a regional public university in South Texas was utilized to compare achievement motivation and resilience between athletes and non-athletes. This study utilized an exploratory and correlational research design. The data was collected utilizing the Contextual Achievement Motivation Survey, Achievement Thoughts and Behavior Survey, and the Brief Resilience Scale. A MANOVA was conducted to study the differences between student athletes and non-athletes in terms of their levels of achievement motivation and resiliency. A multiple regression utilizing moderation analysis was utilized to explore if athletic status (athlete or non-athlete) had an impact on the relationship between achievement motivation and resilience. Independent-sample t tests were conducted to examine differences in achievement motivation in specific settings among student athletes and non-athletes. Results of the study found differences among athletes and non-athletes in terms of achievement motivation and resilience. It was also found that athletes possessed higher achievement motivation levels in community settings versus school, employment, and family settings. Further, athletic status moderated the relationship between achievement motivation and resilience. A positive linear relationship between achievement thoughts and behavior and resilience was established among student athletes. The study has practical implications for counselors, college counselors, counselor educators, and educators working with college athletes. A program that maybe implemented with college athletes to enhance their achievement motivation and resilience was proposed. Counselors, college counselors, or coaches who work with athletes may utilize this program. Further research is recommended to elaborate and clarify the findings of this study.Item Adolescents' academic self perceptions in disciplinary alternative education programs: the impact of a self-affirmation intervention program(2017-08) Armstrong, Shanice Nicole; Ricard, Richard J.; Hunnicut-Hollenbaugh, K. Michelle; Oliver, Marvarene; Bland, EugeneSteele and Aronson (1995) described stereotypic threat as the experience of personal distress related to the fear and anxiety that one might confirm a negative stereotype about a meaningful identity group. Adolescents enrolled in Disciplinary Alternative Education Programs (DAEP) face stereotype threat consequences in the form of lowered expectations, increased anxiety, dejection, and frustration which can impact their academic self-concept and self-image (Yeager & Walton, 2011). Exposure to positive and affirming self-affirmation interventions (e.g., SAP; Schmidt & Canela, 2015; Sherman & Cohen, 2006) have been found to be effective for increasing clients’ ability to defend their self-identity and maintain optimism and motivation in the face of stereotype threat (Cohen, & Sherman, 2014; Cook, Purdie-Vaughns, Garcia, & Cohen 2012). There is a dearth of outcome based research with students in DAEP. The purpose of this study was to explore the impact of a self-affirmation program (SAP) in a DAEP setting. Participants in the SAP were students, obtained using non-probabilistic and purposeful sampling methods, aged 11 to 15 years (n = 23) enrolled in a DAEP. A mixed method methodology was utilized wherein quantitative (pre-post) data and qualitative (phenomenological and personal construct) data were collected concurrently, analyzed independently, and compared. Quantitative data were collected to explore changes in student academic engagement, disengagement, behavior, and self-concept change across time. Qualitative data were collected to glean information from participants’ lived experiences of themselves within the academic domain and after exposure to the SAP. Quantitative results indicated statistically significant increases in students’ perceptions of academic self-concept threat over time. Significant results were also found in student behavioral disaffection scores. No significant changes in emotional engagement, disaffection, behavioral engagement, or active disengagement were found. Qualitative findings voiced adolescent characterizations of themselves within the academic domain and reports of attendance in the SAP and the DAEP as helpful. Implications from this study support the self-affirmation as useful for behaviorally disengaged students vulnerable to identity threat. Self-affirmation holds benefits for adolescent students’ academic self-concept and self-identity beliefs. In addition, this research suggests valuable information toward reinforcing positive self-identity and reducing psychological threat of students assigned to alternative education settings.Item Assessing the link between time spent on social networking sites and depression among adolescents(2021-05) Story, Kimberly Michelle; Kouzekanani, Kamiar; Elliff, D. Scott; Lucido, FrankSince the emergence of portable technology (e.g. smart phones and tablets) and social networking sites, increases in depressive symptoms have occurred. While there is much research regarding depression and time spent on social networking among adults, a systematic review of the literature showed very few studies focusing on younger adolescent students. The purpose of the study was to assess the link between the time spent on social networking sites and depression, as measured by cognitive vulnerability and its adverse impact on performing daily tasks, in a non-probability sample of 9th and 10th graders in an urban school district in south Texas. The inquiry was guided by the Hopelessness Theory of Depression (HTD), which states that highly desired outcomes will not occur regardless of an individual’s skill or expertise (Abramson, Metalsky, & Alloy, 1989). The Social Networking and Depression Questionnaire (SNDQ) was used for the purpose of data collection. Analysis of the data showed that the study’s 85 participants had experienced cognitive vulnerability about once per week with a little impact on completing daily tasks. The results did not support the a priori hypothesis, and it was concluded that there was no statistically significant association between the time spent on social networking sites and depression. A careful examination of the data suggested that the results might have not be the same if (1) the sample were heterogeneous and (2) a different instrumentation had been used to measure depression. Practical implications of the findings were discussed. The study’s findings, delimitations, and limitation were synthesized to recommend further research.Item Bringing it home: Examining the challenges of integrating western counseling in Turkey(2016-08) Ulus, Ihsan Cagatay; Richard J RicardAn ever-increasing number of international counselor education students are faced with the challenge of meaningfully incorporating and translating international training experiences to counseling settings in their home countries. There has been limited research on the returning process of international counseling students and specifically on their ‘adaptation and re-integration’ experiences in the home counseling context. The primary purpose of this study was to explore the challenges, and experiences of current doctoral level Turkish counselors-in-training (TCITs) who are studying in the United States (U.S.) and Turkish counselor educators (TCEs) who previously trained in the U.S. and are presently teaching and practicing in Turkey. A panel of eighteen (18) experts, including both TCITs and TCEs, participated in the study. Participants responded to two rounds of questions based on a modified Delphi method procedure. The questions addressed knowledge, skills and awareness of core counselor education competencies and the transferability, applicability and usefulness of content as experienced in U.S. settings to counseling contexts in Turkey. The initial round of questions focused on perception of five main essential counseling areas: (a) multicultural constructs, (b) theoretical approaches, (c) developmental growth/wellness, (d) organization/professional development, and (e) counseling practice/teaching/research. Thematic content analysis using open coding generated 37 themes which were used to formulate the questions for round two. A second round involved exploration of consensus on qualitative themes emerged from round 1 responses. The findings of the study indicated that both groups of panel experts, particularly, identified the following most important themes regarding to Turkish counseling context: multiculturalism, counseling profession, supervision, counseling theories and basic skills, ethics, counseling training and clinic, and bureaucratic issues. The results of this present study, which emerged from the discussion based on the direction of the modified Delphi method, addressed several implications and recommendations for both counselor educators, who prepare international students and international counselors-in-training.Item Caring for beginning counselors: the relationship between empathy, supervisory working alliance, resilience, wellness, and compassion fatigue counselors-in-training(2018-05) Can, Nesime; Watson, Joshua C,; Oliver, Marvarene; Ricard, Richard; Keys, YolandaThe concept of compassion fatigue has been around since the late 1990s, with researchers examining the relationship between different concepts and compassion fatigue across various professional fields. Compassion fatigue has been described as the natural consequence of behaviors, emotions, and stress resulting from helping or wanting to help a suffering individual or trauma survivor (Figley, 1995). Counselors may experience compassion fatigue because of continual exposure to hearing clients’ suffering and traumatic stories. However, beginning counselors and counselors-in-training (CITs), may experience struggles working with their clients due to lack of knowledge, experience, skillset, or support (Skovholt & Trotter-Mathison, 2016). I designed a correlational study to investigate the associations between compassion fatigue and empathy, supervisory working alliance, resilience, and wellness among CITs in the United States. I used a demographic form, the Brief Resilience Scale, the Flourishing Scale, the Interpersonal Reactivity Index, the Supervisory Working Alliance Inventory: Trainee Form, and the Professional Quality of Life Scale to collect data from 84 CITs who agreed to participate in the study. I then performed a correlation analysis and a three-step hierarchical multiple regression analysis to examine the collected data and address my identified research questions. Results of the present study revealed CITs reporting themselves as having a low risk of compassion fatigue. Results also revealed significant negative correlations between wellness and resilience with compassion fatigue, while significant positive correlations were found between empathy and resilience with wellness. Finally, hierarchical regression analysis results indicated that wellness and resilience were significant predictors of self-reported risk of compassion fatigue among CITs. The findings of the current study support theoretical and practical implications for counselor educators, supervisors, and future researchers. Counselor educators may consider enhancing their current training programs by including discussion topics about empirically predictive factors of compassion fatigue, such as wellness and resilience, in various courses. Supervisors may practice wellness and resilience strategies in supervision and develop interventions designed to prevent compassion fatigue from its early-onset. Future researchers may explore the effectiveness of these wellness and resilience interventions, expanding on the results of the present study.Item Clinicians' lived experiences working with unaccompanied immigrant children(2017-05) Mendez, Erika Ann; Oliver, Marvarene; Watson, Joshua; Fernandez, Mary; Keys, YolandaThere has been an influx of unaccompanied immigrant children fleeing to the U.S. due to gang violence, abuse, and extortion (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2014) and more children are expected to come. The Office of Refugee Resettlement, a federal agency, provides care for these children. Furthermore, these children have an overwhelming need of mental health services because of the trauma they have endured in their home countries. There is a dearth of information regarding lived experiences of clinicians’ practices in providing mental health services to unaccompanied immigrant children. The focus of this study was to explore clinicians’ experiences working with unaccompanied immigrant children utilizing a qualitative heuristic research design. The grand tour questions consisted of (a) What are the lived experiences of clinicians providing mental health services to unaccompanied immigrant children?, and (b) In what ways, if any, have the experiences of working with unaccompanied immigrant children impacted clinicians? Seven participants agreed to take part in the study and to provide interviews. I used a heuristic methodology to collect and analyze data. Six core themes emerged as being central to clinicians’ experiences working with unaccompanied immigrant children: rewarding experiences, professional and personal development, burnout, potential pre-cursors to vicarious trauma, culture, and therapeutic relationship. There are several aspects to consider in terms of recommendations for future research and practice. There is a clear need for more research about unaccompanied minor children, counselors who work with them, and effective intervention approaches. This study may offer insight to counselors and counselor educators in terms of supervision and counselor training. The results of this study indicate counselors working with unaccompanied immigrant children, as with other populations who have experienced trauma, are susceptible to risk factors that could lead to vicarious trauma and burnout if unaddressed. Furthermore, counselor educators might begin to integrate this population into the curricula of counselor training programs in an effort to promote multicultural competency among counselors in training.Item Comparing marital satisfaction, acculturation, and personality across Asian-mixed couples and Asian couples in the United States(2/24/2014) Lee, ShinHwaAs a relatively new but increasing issue, cross-cultural relationships are an area in need further study and understanding for counselors who work with couples and families. Most previous research in this area has been focused on conflicts and issues among cross-cultural couples due to cultural differences; other possible factors or issues, such as personality characteristics, are limited. Moreover, only limited research studies were conducted with Asians involved cross-cultural couples despite the growing population. The purpose of this study was to compare marital satisfaction, acculturation, and personality characteristics across Asian-mixed couples and Asian couples in the United States through examination of (a) the relationship among the level of acculturation, personality, and the level of marital satisfaction of Asians in Asian couples and Asian-mixed couples, (b) the level of acculturation based on their gender and marriage types, (c) the level of marital satisfaction based on their gender and marriage types, and (d) personality characteristics based on marriage types. The sample included 92 Asian and non-Asian individuals in Asian couples and Asian-mixed couples (22 Asian males and 27 Asian females having an Asian partner, 4 Asian males and 23 Asian females having a non-Asian partner, and 14 non-Asian males and 2 non-Asian females having an Asian partner). The findings in this study include (a) no relations among the acculturation level, personality, and the marital satisfaction level of Asians in Asian couples and Asian-mixed couples, (b) significantly higher levels of acculturation in Asians in Asian-mixed couples, (c) no differences in the level of marital satisfaction among individuals in Asian couples and Asian-mixed couples, (d) significantly higher levels of openness, conscientiousness, and extraversion in individuals in Asian-mixed couples. Implications from this study for counselor educators, practitioners, and future counselors working with Asian-mixed couples include (a) being aware of several personality characteristics of Asian-mixed couples that possibly work as strengths and protective factors in their marriage, (b) opening and exploring issues based on wider and holistic views rather than only focus on cultural differences, (c) avoiding stereotypes and pre-assumptions, and (d) understanding basic Asian values.Item A Comparison of first-year undergraduate and graduate international students' adjustment to college(2019-08) Oyeniyi, Odunola Funmilayo; Smith, Robert L.; Watson, Joshua C.; Nelson, Kristina; Billiot, EugeneInternational students constitute a growing student population in many colleges and universities in the United States. Adjusting to a new culture requires a new set of cultural patterns and behaviors that can be uncomfortable and sometimes stressful. Having a better understanding of how international students adjust to college in terms of resilience, relational skills, and acculturative stress, is important to university staff and the students alike, as it is the first step in improving the rate at which these students adjust to their new campus lives abroad. The purpose of this study was to investigate how resilience, relational skills, and acculturative stress, predict college adjustment of first-year undergraduate and graduate international students in the U.S. between August 2018 and May 2019. A combination of ninety-five undergraduate (n=40) and graduate (n=55) first-year international students participated in this study. The data was collected during the spring semester of 2019 from two universities in South Texas utilizing the Brief Resilience Scale (Smith et al., 2008), the Relational Skills Inventory (Smith, 2019), the Acculturative Stress Scale for International Students (Sandhu & Asrabadi, 1994, 1998), and the Inventory of New College Student Adjustment (Watson & Lenz, 2018). Descriptive statistics and MANOVA were used to analyze the variables in this study and a standard multiple regression was employed to determine the unique contributions of resilience, relational skills, and acculturative stress on college adjustment. Additionally, Fisher’s z transformation was used to evaluate whether two regression models were significantly different. The results indicated a statistically significant difference between first-year undergraduate and graduate international students as related to college adjustment. Further analysis discovered significant relationships among predictor and criterion variables. Resilience, relational skills, and acculturative stress significantly explained 55% of the variance in the adjustment of these international students. The comparison of these 3 factors to each other revealed no statistically significant differences, which indicates there are no distinctions in model fit between undergraduate and graduate students. The results of this study have practical implications for college educators, counselors, and administrators which may help universities meet the needs of first-year international students.Item Counselor-in-training experiences of self-compassion training in group supervision(2018-08) Norris, Caroline Austin; Oliver, Marvarene; Castillo, Yvonne; Lenz, Stephen; Glanc, GinaThe purpose of this descriptive phenomenological study was to explore the lived experiences of counselors-in-training(CITs) who participated in self-compassion interventions as part of their internship group supervision course. A total of 11 internship students participated in journaling and individual interviews, four of whom additionally participated in a focus group. Purposeful sampling was used and participants were recruited from two sections of the internship group supervision course. Participants completed the Self-Compassion Scale-Short Form once prior to participation in in five self-compassion interventions that took place during their group supervision class and journaled about their experiences. Participants were interviewed individually and those who were available participated in a focus group. Data was collected in the form of journal entries, and responses during individual interviews and responses as part of a focus group. Giorgi’s descriptive phenomenological methodology was used to analyze detailed and conscious descriptions provided by CITs concerning their experience with the phenomenon.The findings of this study enhance our understanding of CITs’ experiences participating in self-compassion training during group supervision. Nine constituents emerged during analysis as part of a single structure of participant experience: presence; relaxation; a reflective and evaluative process; thinking about, defining and applying self-compassion; heightened self- awareness; desire to engage in personally meaningful activities and practices; sometimes difficult to do; consideration of clients; and wanting more. Researchers should continue to examine whether self-compassion training can be an effective strategy to encourage CITs to engage in self-care and whether self-compassion training would have lasting impact on development of burnout. Additionally, researchers should consider that participants wanted more than was provided in the self-compassion training, and at times were not able to differentiate topics and concepts covered in the training.Item Creative arts in group supervision of counselors-in-training(2/24/2014) Power, Lauren ShowsThe purpose of the current study was to examine the use of creative arts in group supervision and its perceived effects on case conceptualization and counselor development from the counselor-in-training's perspective. Research questions guiding this study included: How do counselors-in-training (CITs) perceive the experience of participating in group supervision utilizing creative arts methods? How do CITs perceive the impact of group supervision that utilizes creative arts methods? How do CITs perceive the impact of group supervision utilizing creative arts methods on case conceptualization with current clients? How do CITs perceive the impact of group supervision utilizing creative arts methods on their development as counselors? Participants included five Master's level CITs completing internships at a Counseling and Training Clinic (CTC) on the campus of a university in the southwestern region of the United States. These CITs were gaining clinical experience, as a part of the requirement, in counseling and were providing services to clients with various concerns. Eight themes emerged: (1) positive experience, (2) balance with traditional supervision, (3) creating an environment, (4) engaging in a creative process, (5) perceptions of impact, (6) awareness, (7) importance of the group, and (8) techniques. The first theme, positive experience, includes a sub-theme, relaxation. The sixth theme, awareness, encapsulates both awareness of themselves and awareness of clients. The theme entitled engaging in a creative process includes authentic self and being present as subthemes. Implication for practice and recommendations for future research are provided. Creative arts can be used in group supervision to help CITs get past rigidity, pressure to be right, and insecurity about being themselves. Further investigation of the internal creative process experienced and the sense of safety expressed by counselors-in-training using creative arts in group supervision is needed to further support and expand these findings.Item Development and evaluation of the intersectional privilege screening inventory(2019-08) Pester, Danielle; Lenz, Stephen; Nelson, Kristina; Watson, Joshua; Hamilton, MaryPower dynamics are an innate part of the counseling process. Counselors naturally enter the counseling relationship in a position of power while simultaneously inviting the client to a position of vulnerability. These dynamics are heightened when there are differing positions of privilege and marginalization in the counselor-client relationship. Because privilege is often an invisible construct for those who hold privileged positions, counseling practitioners must develop awareness of the construct to guide best practices in both counselor education and clinical practice. Currently, counselor educators and clinical supervisors have few psychometrically based resources to quantify the presence of this construct within their counselors-in-training (CITs). The purpose of this study was to develop and evaluate the psychometric properties of the Intersectional Privilege Screening Inventory (IPSI) to be used within counselor training to measure student development that is consistent with current standards for social and cultural competence. Three hundred and thirty-nine CITs enrolled in counseling programs from regionally representative universities across the United States participated in this study. Protocols for item development, expert review, cognitive interviewing, psychometric analyses of validity evidence, and estimations of internal consistency were implemented for the IPSI. Findings suggest that the procedure used to develop IPSI items resulted in content that was representative of related constructs, whereas evidence for internal consistency was robust across the subscale scores. Furthermore, the bivariate correlation analysis between scores on the IPSI and related measures provided evidence for convergent validity with conceptually-related constructs. Taken together, these findings suggest that validity and reliability evidence for scores on the IPSI indicate that the measure may represent a defensible resource within counselor preparation programs and clinical supervision. The project manuscript will be submitted to the Counselor Education and Supervision journal published by the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision. Overall, the use of the IPSI allows the invisible construct of intersectional privilege to become visible so that it can be appropriately tended to throughout a CIT’s training experience. Consequently, the IPSI allows counseling programs and clinical supervisors to be better poised to provide robust evidence that their students are meeting standards for social and cultural diversity.Item Development and evaluation of the sex positivity inventory for counselors(2022-08) Burks, Ashley; Gerlach, Jennifer; Watson, Joshua; Hollenbaugh, K. Michelle Hunnicutt; Hinojosa, YndalecioSexuality is highly stigmatized and typically accompanied with shame-inducing attitudes, misinformation, and behaviors which make seeking sexual wellness a daunting task (Iantaffi, 2016). Despite the challenges of accessing sexual wellness, research shows several mental health correlations to sexual wellbeing that contribute to happiness, socioemotional development, and overall wellness (Anderson, 2013; Blanchflower & Oswald, 2004; Pariera, 2018). Unfortunately, sexuality is not addressed in many counselor preparation programs which leaves counselors underprepared and potentially apprehensive of addressing sexual issues with clients (Burnes et al., 2017a; Sanabria & Murray, 2018; Talley, 2020). Instead, researchers and advocates are now calling for a new approach to counselor education called sex positivity (Cruz et al., 2017; Mosher, 2017; Phillips, 2022). Sex positivity is an approach for addressing sexual issues in counseling that includes an emphasis on strengths and wellbeing, acknowledges individuality and embraces multiple ways of knowing, upholds professional ethics, promotes open, honest, humanizing, and peacemaking communication, and explores the impact of sexuality across multiple levels of the social structure (Williams et al., 2015). Incorporating this type of approach in counseling is important because it reflects the counseling professional and ethical values and prepares counselors to address sexual issues with clients in a useful and humanizing way (Burnes et al., 2017b; Cruz et al., 2017). However, research on sex positivity is limited and mainly conceptual in nature (Bloom et al., 2019; Litam & Speciale, 2021; Neuer Colburn & Upton, 2019). This means that definitions of sex positivity and approaches for implementing sex positivity are lacking in empirical evidence (Ivanski & Kohut, 2017). To address these issues, I developed and analyzed the Sex Positivity Inventory for Counselors (SPI-C) using Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA). The goal of this study was to clarify the definition of sex positivity and illuminate sex-positive attitudes, knowledge, and skills. The EFA results supported a six factor, 34-item scale of sex positivity that accounted for 32.9% of the variance. The factors included Procedural Sex Positivity, Comfortability with Sexuality, Perceived Sex Positivity, Fundamental Sex Education, Sexological Worldview, and Unconditional Positive Sexual Regard. The SPI-C had an excellent internal consistency of 0.96 meaning it is suitable for future research. The findings of the SPI-C support Williams and colleagues’ (2015) conceptualization of sex positivity. Additionally, the SPI-C illuminates basic educational needs (Abbott et al., 2015; Reissing & DiGuilio, 2010; Zeglin et al., 2018), the need for comfortability to discuss sexual issues (Kelsey et al., 2013; Mercer & Dermer, 2020; Miller & Byers, 2012), and useful practices to establish competency in sexuality counseling (Cruz et al., 2017; Sanabria & Murray, 2018). The SPI-C will be a useful measure for inclusion in counselor education, improving counselor self-awareness and competency, and increasing empirically based research on sexuality counseling.Item Development and initial validation of a social media identity distress scale(2019-08) Luo, Ye; Watson, Joshua; Lenz, Steven; Nelson, Kristina; Buck, GregoryToday, emerging adults (18-25 years of age; Arnett, 2000) encounter various degrees of identity distress and identity issues due to stressors such as prolonged schooling and career uncertainty (Samuolis & Griffin, 2014). As a fast-growing platform, social media serves as a convenient way for emerging adults to express and explore themselves. Social media also allows its users to conduct social comparisons (Festinger, 1954) online, which creates mental stress for emerging adults in addition to their identity distress. I define this mixture of stress Social Media Identity Distress (SMIDS). In order to help young adults cope with SMID, counselors should first have a valid tool to measure SMID. The current study aims at developing and validating an instrument measuring the mental stress regarding one’s ability to create a coherent self while conducting social media activities. I have collected data from two random samples on Amazon Turk. I used Sample 1 (n = 450) data to conduct an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and Sample 2 (n = 297) data to perform a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). To obtain the convergent validity, I used bivariate correlation analyses. Additionally, I have calculated internal consistency reliability (α) for the scale. The results yielded a 45-item scale explaining 74.4% variances with a reasonable model fit. Moreover, SMIDS has good psychometric properties (α = .99). I plan to submit the manuscript to the Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development journal because it is noted for publishing articles regarding measurement in counseling, which matches well with the aim of the current study. The development of SMIDS enables counselors to focus on the potential impact of social media on their clients, which could accelerate the treatment progress. Further, counselor educators can introduce SMIDS to counseling trainees to help them understand the impact of technology in the counseling process. In future research, researchers could seek to obtain validation evidence by using SMIDS among other populations, acquire qualitative data to provide more clarity for the construct, and breviate the scale via scientific ways.Item Development and initial validation of the brief trauma resiliency scale(2020-08) Ayala, Joe Michael; Smith, Robert L.; Watson, Joshua C.; Ricard, RichardTrauma is a widely experienced event across the nation and throughout the world. Worldwide statistics estimate 70% of adults experienced at least one traumatic event in their lifetime (Benjet et al., 2016). There are various therapeutic interventions available for trauma survivors but few measures that attempt to directly assess one’s resilience to traumatic experiences. This study aims to fulfill this need. A comprehensive review of research about resilience and trauma were examined to facilitate the development of instrument items. Further, well established resilience instruments and theoretical concepts were used in item creation. These resources were used to help establish content related to the trauma resiliency construct. Trauma resiliency is described as one’s ability to bounce back after traumatic experiences. In this quantitative study, four objectives facilitated the development and validation of the Brief Trauma Resiliency Scale (BTRS) including: (1) evaluating content-oriented evidence, (2) assessing the internal structure of the BTRS, (3) evaluating the relationships of the BTRS with related constructs, and (4) evaluating the internal consistency reliability of BTRS scores. A comprehensive explanation is provided about the study design and inherent limitations are acknowledged.Item Development and validation of an inventory measuring dietary attitudes of healthy eating and orthorexia nervosa(2018-05) Burda, Lilo; Watson, Joshua; Oliver, Marvarene; Hollenbaugh, Michelle; Gere, RichScholars characterize Orthorexia Nervosa (ON) as a preoccupation with healthy eating leading to restrictive and obsessive eating behavior resulting in pathology. In this article, the researcher will address Eating disorders in college students, Orthorexia, a form of eating disorder, Challenges in diagnosing ON, Limitations of current assessment tools, and Development of the Burda Orthorexia Risk Assessment instrument (B-ORA).Item Development and validation of the process of interpersonal empathy scale (pies)(2021-08) Ho, Chia-Min; Watson, Joshua C.; Ratanavivan, Wannigar; Ricard, Richard J.Empathy is a consistent predictor of positive counseling outcome. As counselor educators attempted to teach and evaluate CITs’ empathy competence, various conceptualizations and measurements emerged. Thus, the purpose of this study was to validate a proposed theoretical model and developed a measure based on the model. One hundred and forty-eight recorded responses were usable data. The results of the exploratory factor analysis revealed that a five factor model could best represent counselors’ empathy competence. The resulting Process of Interpersonal Empathy Scale (PIES) is a 20-item scale with promising psychometric properties. The PIES contains five subscales: Conceptualization, Emotional Complexity, Emotional Awareness, Reflections, and Exploratory Stance. Overall, the PIES shows promises for use in research and counselor education. The need of additional validation studies remains to establish consistent results.Item Échale ganas: Initial development and validation of a grit scale for a Hispanic population(2021-05) Rocha, Lauren; Watson, Joshua; Hollenbaugh, K. Michelle Hunnicutt; Gerlach, JenniferGrit is the perseverance towards a long-term goal while overcoming challenges (Duckworth et al. 2007). Since it is a character trait that is about endurance, resilience, and perspective, it has been the subject of measuring within people (Crede, 2017; Datu & McInerney, 2017). Duckworth and colleagues (2007) developed a two-factor, eight-item Grit Scale (Grit-O) to measure grit through perseverance and passion. However, Duckworth and colleagues (2007) did not consider the multicultural influences for perseverance. For instance, individuals from collectivist cultures are motivated to persevere when the result will help their family instead of only themselves. I used the collectivistic aspects of the Hispanic culture to develop a new grit instrument that is culturally appropriate. I used Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) to collect a purposeful sample from the United States Hispanic demographic. I conducted an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) with a sample of 336 Hispanic participants and a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with a sample of 250 Hispanic participants. I check for reliability using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for internal consistency. I also conducted a bivariate correlation analysis to show convergent validity. The EFA results produced a four-factor, 15-item scale that accounts for 41.29% of variance, which I confirmed as a good fit with the CFA. The four factors in the Bicultural Grit Scale include Intuitive Flow, Conscious Endurance, Commit to Action, and Community Affirmation. The reliability alpha coefficient is .88, making the instrument suitable for research. Grit is an innate response to challenges that still includes a sense of self-awareness for positive and hopeful cognitions. The results of the current study show that goals to improve family and community life are part of those innate responses and hopeful cognitions. Therefore, the four factors reveal the salience of family, peer, and community support in collectivistic cultures when persevering. The support contributes to maintaining a perspective and concrete goal. The current study contributes to Datu and McInerny’s (2017) question about the differences in grit cultures when considering non-White cultures. Additionally, the Bicultural Grit Scale is reliable and valid for research use among Hispanic participants in the United States.Item Effects of Differentiation of Self and Proactive Behaviors on Career Decision-Making of College Students(2015-08) Smith, Wayne Douglas; Marvarene OliverWe live in a world of increasing modernization which has led to a rise in the number of occupational paths, specializations, trainings, and job types (Gati & Levin, 2014). Given the importance of career and work in an individual’s life, it is prudent to understand as fully as possible the characteristics that can influence one’s career development process. Understanding the impact of differentiation of self and proactivity may lay the groundwork for future interventions with secondary and post-secondary students as well as those already in the workforce. The primary purpose of this multiple regression investigation was to find how differentiation of self and proactive personality predict career decidedness. The sample for this study consisted of 164 college students enrolled in undergraduate level courses at a Hispanic serving institution in South Texas. All participants were provided a sealed envelope that included a (a) demographic form, (b) Proactive Personality Scale, (c) Differentiation of Self Inventory, and (d) Career Decision Scale. A correlation design was used to predict criterion variables with knowledge of other variables (Gay & Airasian, 2011). More specifically, the method of data analysis used for this study was a multiple regression. The findings of the multiple regression indicated proactive personality and differentiation of self were statistically significant predictors of career decidedness. Three of the differentiation of self subscales, Emotional Reactivity, Emotional Cutoff, and Fusion with Others, were significant predictors of career decidedness. Results suggest elements from each of the measures of differentiation of self and proactive personality significantly predicted career decision-making. The findings from this study are valuable to career counselors, students attempting to decide which career to pursue, and family members and friends who influence the career decision-making of students. Directions for future research include greater diversity in ethnicity and gender, sampling young adults who are not in college, and researching how the quality of relationships within the family affects one’s career decision-making.Item The effects of yoga-based social-emotional learning on emotion regulation, perceived stress, and worry(2020-05) Faucher, Amanda; Watson, Joshua; Smith, Robert; Ricard, Richard; Seidel, StevenChildren today face a myriad of stressors that challenge their ability to cope. Whether it’s bullying, shootings, school violence, or suicide, these events include some level of emotion dysregulation (Bradley, Whisenhunt, Adamson, & Kress, 2011). Schools are facing increasing pressure to help students learn more than academics (Lenkeit & Caro, 2014). Some states, such as Illinois and New York, have even implemented social-emotional learning standards (Payton et al., 2008). Still, suicide remains as the second leading cause of death among children ages 10-18, second only to unintentional injury (Center for Disease Control [CDC], 2018a). The purpose of this study was to see if combining yoga with social-emotional learning would have an impact on emotion regulation, perceived stress, or worry among elementary-aged children. This quantitative, Mixed-ANOVA design with a control group studied 36 students in the fourth and fifth grades, 30 of whom were Hispanic. All participants were attending a bilingual elementary school in south Texas. The curriculum employed was an empirically supported, standardized, yoga-based social-emotional learning program that had been used in prior research with older children (junior high school and up). An experimental design was selected to determine the effects of a yoga-based social-emotional learning program on elementary-aged students. Data collection occurred pre-, during, and post-intervention. The intervention group showed small improvement over the treatment as usual (TAU) group, however there were no statistically significant differences between two the groups after treatment. Given some improvement in a small amount of time, it is recommended that the yoga-based social-emotional learning program be considered for future research due to its cost effectiveness and flexibility in scheduling. Implications of the results and additional recommendations for future research are discussed.Item The efficacy of a professional school counselor’s literacy-related social skills interventions in the acquisition of reading comprehension by emergent readers(2017-12) Freeman, Paula Diane; Watson, Joshua C.; Oliver, Marvarene; Hollenbaugh, Michelle; Maresh-Fuehrer, MichelleThe current study used a mixed design ANOVA to compare the I-Ready reading comprehension scores of 76 students enrolled in an elementary school in South Texas. A previously untested intervention, a literacy-related social skills group, derived from the constructs of emotional intelligence, was compared to the more orthodox interventions of a social book club and a traditional classroom setting over three assessment windows throughout the academic school year. Participants included 40 girls and 36 boys. All groups had an equal division of girls and boys, and an equal division of students from third through fifth grade. Each group met for 50 minutes per week, and groups contained no more than 5 participants. Therefore, each treatment condition was given to multiple groups. The participants were 86.8% Latino (n = 66), 7.9% White (n = 6), 3.9% African American (n = 3), and 1.3% Asian (n = 1). Many of the participants, 76.3% (n = 58), were from homes of low socioeconomic status. More than one in ten of the students, 11.8% (n = 9), were also in the process of learning English as a second language. The demographic attributes of the participants in the current study mirror the overall demographics of the school. After treatments, the end of year (EOY) scores indicated a significant difference between groups with F = 10.05, p ≤ .001. The effect size of η2 was .216 indicating a large effect. The results of the study demonstrate a statistically significant improvement in reading comprehension I-Ready scores in the interaction effect of participants in the literacy-related social skills group at the end of the school year while no statistically significant gains were made in the other two groups (F (4,146) = 12.57, p ≤ .001, η2 = .256.)